The COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE (post-1492 transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and human populations across the Atlantic) had which SPECIFIC BIOLOGICAL and DEMOGRAPHIC EFFECTS?

The Columbian Exchange had specific biological and demographic effects. American crops transformed Afro-Eurasian agriculture and diet — potatoes became European staples (Ireland particularly), maize spread across Africa (with substantial roles in Southern and Eastern African food systems) and Asia, tomatoes reshaped Mediterranean cuisines, cassava became staple across tropical Africa, chili peppers reshaped cuisines from Sichuan to Kerala to Ethiopia, cacao became global commodity, tobacco became global smoking commodity. Afro-Eurasian crops and livestock transformed American landscapes — wheat, rice, sugar cane became American colonial commodity crops, cattle transformed North American plains and Pampas, pigs became widespread free-range presence, sheep supported Andean and various other pastoral economies, horses were adopted by North American Plains peoples transforming their societies. Afro-Eurasian diseases produced catastrophic mortality among indigenous Americans — with smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, and various other diseases producing estimated 50–90% mortality over subsequent centuries in previously-unexposed populations lacking any immunity. Transatlantic slave trade moved approximately 12 million Africans to the Americas across the 16th–19th centuries — reshaping African, American, and global demographics with substantial continuing legacies. Alfred Crosby's 1972 Columbian Exchange remains foundational analytical framework.